Tutorials

Note: it’s recommended to follow this VHDL tutorial series in order, starting with the first tutorial. In the previous tutorial, VHDL – 18, we designed a T-flip flop using VHDL. For this project, we will: Write a VHDL program a VHDL program to build a 4-bit binary counter Verify the output waveform of the program (the…

Note: it’s recommended to follow this VHDL tutorial series in order, starting with the first tutorial. In previous tutorial, VHDL tutorial – 17, we designed a JK flip-flop circuit by using VHDL. For this project, we will: Write a VHDL program to build the T flip-flop circuit Verify the output waveform of the program (the digital…

Humans collect information about the nature and organize it as ‘science’. The very foundation of science i.e. organized knowledge about understanding of nature and natural phenomena, is based on language and mathematics. Any branch of science involves identification of entities, their attributes, associated events and mathematical analysis of those attributes and events. Such structural analysis of nature and natural phenomena begins with quantification of physical things and their properties, i.e. representation by name and properties of things and events as discrete information (words) and measurement of every possible property in numbers. This is the basic nature and method by which the humans explore the world. 

The previous tutorials laid the foundation for logic synthesis and design of digital circuits. The digital circuits in general always have application as computing devices either as processor, controller or application specific ICs. As a computing device, the digital circuitry of a processor, controller or ASIC must be essentially able to perform arithmetic operations. The implementation of arithmetic operations by digital circuitry is further used to build up complex computing logics and mathematical functions. 

In the previous tutorial, it was discussed that how any information can be represented by numbers and a set of numbers (code systems)can be used to store and manipulate information. A lot of real-world information is mathematical in nature like count of things, measurements of quantities etc. Such information may further have mathematical relationships. In order for a computer (digital circuit) to perform computing (mathematical operations) on such information, it must be first able to perform arithmetic operations. The arithmetic operations are the basic mathematical operations. Only by performing arithmetic operations, other algebraic operations can be performed on numerical data.

In the previous tutorial, boolean arithmetic was introduced. It was shown that how binary numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. In this tutorial, now logic operations on binary numbers will be discussed. The logic operations are not only the way to implement arithmetic operations (by means of combinational circuits), they form the building blocks of the digital circuits. A digital circuit is built by logic gates where the logic gates perform one or the other boolean logic operation. 

In the previous tutorial, it was discussed how arithmetic operations on binary numbers can be implemented by the means of boolean logic operations. In a digital circuit, the logic operations are executed by logic gates. A Logic gate is an electronic circuit which makes logical decisions. The AND, OR and NOT are the basic logic gates. 

In the previous tutorial, various logic gates and their construction was discussed. In the tutorial – Boolean Logic Operations, it was discussed that how by performing logical operations on binary data, arithmetic operations can be executed. In a digital circuit, many logic gates are interconnected along with registers and memory elements to carry out a complex computation task. Any computational problem can be expressed as a boolean function or boolean expression.

In the previous tutorial, various boolean postulates and theorems were discussed. These theorems and postulates are useful in deducing a boolean expression. It was also discussed that for n number of variables, there can be maximum 2^2n boolean functions. So, there can be maximum 16 (2^4) boolean functions between two boolean variables. A boolean variable represents a singular binary data source in digital electronics i.e. a single bit or serial  stream of bits. So, there can be maximum 16 logical functions in digital circuits. Let us learn about all the logical operations. 

Note: it’s recommended to follow this VHDL tutorial series in order, starting with the first tutorial. In the previous tutorial, we designed a clocked SR latch circuits using VHDL (which is a very high-speed integrated circuit hardware description language). For this project, we will: Write a VHDL program to build a D flip-flop circuit Verify the…

The audio electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with designing of circuits that convert sound into electrical signals or electrical signals back into the sound. These circuits all together form an audio system.  Basically, an audio system is designed to receive audio signals (via microphone), record audio in some storage, transmit audio (through wired or wireless communication channels) and reproduce audio signals (via speakers). So, the audio circuits perform signal processing for representing the sound in the form of electrical signals, manipulate the electrical (audio) signals like amplifying, filtering or mixing, reproduce sound from the audio signals, store audio into computer files or reproduce audio from an audio file. All these processes are performed by different audio related circuits or devices.

In the previous tutorial, sound wave and its properties were discussed. Now it’s time to understand Acoustic Waves. Generally, the term sound wave is used to refer the waves having frequency range audible to humans that is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. The waves having frequency greater than 20 KHz are called Ultrasonic waves and waves having a frequency range in Giga Hertz or higher are called Hypersonic Waves. The term Acoustic Wave is a more general term to refer sound or vibration of any frequency.   In physics, Acoustic is the branch of science which deals with the study of any mechanical wave in the solid, liquid and gaseous medium. Acoustic Waves are longitudinal waves.

In the previous tutorials, physical properties of sound waves and acoustic waves were discussed. Sound or Acoustic Waves are in the form of vibration. Sound needs to be converted into electrical signals so that it can be processed by electronic circuits. So, the sound which is a mechanical energy must convert into electrical energy and must be precisely represented as an electrical waveform (analog) for any signal processing operations.  So, there is need of a device which could sense the audio signals efficiently and convert them into electrical signals. 

In the previous tutorial, working principle and classification of microphones was discussed. The microphone is an input transducer which converts sound waves into electrical signals. The audio signals from a MIC are amplified by a preamplifier and transferred to the main audio unit. The audio unit might comprise of amplifier and/or filter circuit or may have other circuitry to store audio to a computer. The amplified or stored audio is reproduced using another type of transducer which is called speaker.  The Speaker is a type of output transducer which converts the electrical signal into audio signal. Speakers are enclosed in a rectangular or square shape cabinet. The shape of the box affects the quality of the sound. The cabinet consists of different types of transducers/speakers which produce different types of audio frequency. Each transducer is called as ‘driver’ and the whole cabinet is known as ‘loudspeaker’.

In the previous tutorials, two of the most important building blocks of an audio system – Microphone  and Speaker were discussed. An audio system is designed to receive audio signals (via microphone), record audio in some storage, transmit audio (through wired or wireless communication channels) and reproduce audio signals (via speakers). So, the audio circuits perform signal processing for representing the sound in the form of electrical signals, manipulate the electrical (audio) signals like amplifying, filtering or mixing, reproduce sound from the audio signals, store audio into computer files or reproduce audio from an audio file.

Light sensors are widely used in electronic applications. The most common one used is a photoresistor or light-dependent resistor. Despite a long response time, this sensor is inexpensive and useful in several applications. A photoresistor consists of a zigzag track of photo-sensitive semiconductors. It offers pure resistance although this is dependent on the ambient light.…

In the previous tutorial VHDL tutorial, we designed 8×3 encoder and 3×8 decoder circuits using VHDL. (If you are not following this VHDL tutorial series one by one, you are requested to go through all previous tutorials of these series before going ahead in this tutorial) In this tutorial, We shall write a VHDL program…

In the previous tutorial VHDL tutorial, we designed an 8-bit parity generator and 8-bit parity checker circuits using VHDL. (If you are not following this VHDL tutorial series one by one, you are requested to go through all previous tutorials of these series before going ahead in this tutorial) In this tutorial, We shall write…

Having been around for more than two decades, USB connectors are one of the most popular and well-recognized interconnect components in electronic designs. From Type A to Type-C, USB has gone through an array of changes both in terms of the physical connector as well as their associated standards. USB Type-C is the most advanced…

Nowadays programming language is getting more popular and is being used in each and every domain. Various applications, software etc. are created by programming. C programming is easy and simple language,  which can prove to be a useful choice for a beginner who wants to become a programmer.C language is the basis of all languages and is useful to understand the concept of Linux in brief. Most of the part of Linux kernel is written in C language. So knowledge of C programming helps to understand Kernel program and application.